Locating Sarkar:
Economy, Epistemology, and Social Theory
From Sohail Inayatullah, Situating Sarkar: Tantra, Macrohistory and Alternative
Futures. Maleny, Gurukul Publications 1999.
Finding Sarkar's works exemplary because of his ability to resolve classical
economic, epistemological and social contradictions, in this essay, we locate
the works of P.R. Sarkar within a range of discursive schemes, and, at the
same time, I attempt to reveal the problems that are inherent in these schemes
themselves. We ask how do Sarkar's theory of economics, epistemology and
social change measure against other approaches. Of course, this is done in
an ideal theoretical setting since PROUT has yet to be fully implemented
anywhere.
Dividing economic theory into two dimensions, growth and distribution, we
argue that Sarkar's PROUT is strong on both growth and distribution dimensions
eclectically
drawing on market and regulatory mechanisms. Further dividing political-economy
into four dimensions: survival, well being, identity and freedom, we argue
that market models are strong on freedom (individual economic rights) but weak
on survival (especially at the periphery); while Local "small is beautiful" models
are strong on survival (basic needs) and identity (purpose and solidarity),
medium at well-being (life enhancement) but weak on the freedom dimension (capital
and individual mobility is limited). Sarkar's PROUT, however, is strong on
three levels: survival, well being, identity and medium on freedom needs (since
the accumulation of wealth is limited). Communism, in contrast, is strong on
survival (since basic needs are guaranteed), medium at well-being (there is
some surplus but mostly for party members) and weak at freedom and identity.
Table: Political Economy
Growth High Low Medium High
Distribution low High Medium High
Capitalism Localism Communism PROUT
Table: Economy and Identity
Strong Medium Weak
Capitalism Freedom Well-Being Identity
Survival
Localism Identity Well-Being Freedom
Survival
PROUT Identity Freedom
Survival
Well-Being
Communism Survival Well-Being
Identity
Freedom
Sarkar also takes an eclectic
model of epistemology allowing for a range of ways of knowing the world
instead of a univocal view of how the real can
be known, only by logic for example. He takes a layered "deep and shallow" view
of the nature of reality instead of a merely true/false dichotomy. Finally,
and this is the centerpiece of the argument, Sarkar's social theory combines
linear and cyclical views of change thus avoiding cultural exploitation and
fatalism and his theory has a role for the individual (free will), structure
(history and class) as well as the transcendental (that which inspires and
unites). Most theories are either linear or cyclical either privileging individual
agency over historical structure or vice versa. The transcendental is either
forgotten or considered as a prime variable associated with a particular
state or civilization instead of seen as universally available and accessible.
GROWTH AND DISTRIBUTION
Further focusing on political-economy, we will analyze PROUT by using peace
researcher Johan Galtung's comparison of Occidental and Oriental cosmology
across four categories: growth (wealth accumulation), distribution (wealth
distribution), personal violence (harm to individuals) and structural violence
(institutional violence or violence that occurs because of economic and political
structures). Our question here is where does PROUT fit into this scheme,
how does it rank in these categories (low or high, weak or strong)? In general,
PROUT is high on the growth dimension. PROUT is essentially a spiritual ideology
but measures the vitality of a society by its standard of living. It is also
high on growth because Sarkar emphasizes the maximum use of physical, mental
and spiritual potentialities. PROUT is also high on the distribution dimension
as Sarkar posits that society is like a family moving together toward a common
goal and thus wealth should be "rationally" distributed. In addition,
PROUT is strong on distribution because it posits ceilings to the accumulation
of wealth, thus reducing the concentration of wealth and allowing redistribution.
Along the dimension of personal violence, PROUT is medium since Sarkar contextualizes
violence asserting that the universe is violent in itself. And even though
ahimsa is a central tenet in his ethics, avoiding social and political struggle
is not. Indeed, while he does not support violent revolutions his theory does
predict them. On the structural violence dimension, however, PROUT is low since
his theory attempts to remove the differences between gender, class, nation
and culture. Through self-reliance and spiritual socialism, PROUT intends to
eliminate the basis for structural violence. Moreover since Sarkar's unit of
analysis or transformation is the entire universe (including plants and animals),
his inclusiveness pre-empts structural violence.
ECLECTIC ECONOMICS
Using Galtung's theory of alterative economics, this argument can be developed
further. Galtung examines five different economic structures: the blue economy
focused on growth and capital accumulation, the red economy focused on a
national plan, the golden economy focused on cooperation between market and
plan, government and state, and labor and capital, the rose economy based
on softening the inequities of the market through government intervention
and the green economy concerned with economic sustainability. Again our question
is one of location, of comparative measurement. To do this we use three ratios:
culture/nature (c/n), quality/price (q/p) and real economy/finance economy
(r/f).
Sarkar's PROUT has elements of each on these economies. Like the blue economy,
PROUT still has markets even though they are need based not profit based. Intellectual
and spiritual ideals are market oriented in terms of the freedom of to chose
ideas and spiritual paths. Like the blue dimension, PROUT is high technology
and innovation led. Sarkar sees technological advancement as inevitable, he
only seeks to place it in a non-exploitive element where new technologies do
not take away the rights and wages of labor rather they enhance the general
welfare. Sarkar also does not make a sharp distinction between the technological
and the spiritual, indeed, he asserts that genetic engineering could even lead
to a more spiritual world.
PROUT is similar to the red economy in two ways: first, in the sense that both
are critical of capitalism and believe in a long term struggle against this
system, and second in terms of macro-, meso- and micro-planning. However, while
Sarkar believes that there needs to be an economic plan it should be decentralized
and not run by the Party or the State, rather plans should empower local people
in solving their own problems. They should provide general policy not micro-management.
The market is a dynamic and often humane system that planners must guide not
distort.
Sarkar's PROUT is generally similar to the rose economy in that it is a social
democratic movement but with spiritual overtones. A critical difference however
is that he would prefer revolution rather then the slow pace of democratic
socialism.
Moreover, instead of heavy income taxation, Sarkar prefers a sales
tax. The other similar notion with the rose economy is the idea that one needs
all types of wealth to grow: physical and intellectual labor as well as capital.
PROUT is similar to the golden economy in that both emphasize collective unity
among members and believe that economic vitality is central to producing a
good society. However, whereas in East Asia, the self is identified with race,
nation and corporation, Sarkar would locate the self in the Cosmic self breaking
the nation down into bioregional economic associations. Other identifications
would be temporary, even fleeting. But like the Japanese, Sarkar encourages
savings, discipline, and long range planning and like the larger East Asian
system, PROUT has both vertical dimensions (his pyramidical organizational
structure) and horizontal dimensions (respect for all types of labor and group
unity through identification in universal consciousness). In both cases the
metaphor is of the group. For Sarkar, we are a society, a family, travelling
together on a journey. Each must take care of the other.
The deepest similarities are between PROUT and the Green economy. Both cultural
economic systems favor strong decentralization, strong economic democracy,
and an environmental ethic. Sarkar, however, would be more growth-oriented
and high technology-oriented than the Green perspective, especially in its
self-reliant form in India (which has only strengthened the State and the dominant
Brahmin caste). But like the Greens and the Gandhians he would decentralize
industry and attempt to avoid what Mark Satin in New Age Politics has called
the "Big City Outlook." For Sarkar the key in creating a good society
is prama or balance between the individual and the collective, growth and distribution,
and between ideational and sensate.
KEY RATIOS FOR GROWTH
We can further locate PROUT by using some key ratios that measure economic
development. The first is culture/nature or to what extent one improves upon
nature.
Manufacturing is high on c/n while trading raw materials would be
low on c/n. The former leads to development and the latter to underdevelopment.
The second is quality/price, where the goal is to maximize quality and minimize
price so as to attract the most consumers. The third ratio is real economy/finance
economy. A healthy economy would keep these two in balance making sure that
the real economy (the development and trade of raw materials, goods and services)
dominates the finance economy (banking and speculation).
Like the Japanese economy, PROUT is medium on the culture/nature ratio because
Sarkar would assert that nature is invented and that humans should gradually
take over, even improve, the activities of Prakrti. However, at the same time,
he would, as much as possible, preserve nature in that nature is valued for
its existence not for its particular utility value. PROUT theory recommends
that economic regions do not trade their valuable raw materials instead they
should be used as inputs for manufacturing. Finished goods can certainly be
traded, however.
Being high on the quality/price ratio is important in PROUT theory but less
so given the focus on needs and self-reliant economic units. However, as self-reliant
units develop, they would open up and q/p would become increasingly critical.
Finally Sarkar is strong on the real economy/finance economy ratio. Stock markets
would be localized or greatly limited thus eliminating speculation (and growth
for the center) and, of course, there would be limits to capital accumulation.
In as much as economic growth is increasingly difficult when the real economy
becomes de-linked from either the finance speculative economy or the underground
(drug, black market or corrupt) economy, Sarkar would attempt to limit corruption
(in the bureaucracy and the financial markets) through moral measures and by
creating a climate of fairness, where corruption was not needed. For Sarkar,
the State must have more watchdog type associations with power decentralized.
SURVIVAL, BASIC NEEDS, IDENTITY AND FREEDOM
We can now further map PROUT's economic system and then compare it to how other
economic systems meet our four earlier indicators: survival, well being,
identity and freedom. As argued above, PROUT does a better job of maximizing
these four areas. For example, market systems are high on freedom but medium
on survival and basic needs and low on identity. This medium ranking for
survival and basic needs drops to low when we move our analysis to the third
world. The key to understanding capitalism is that the center-periphery (between
rich and poor, first and third worlds, urban-rural, men-women) relationship
is disavowed with lack of growth at the periphery justified by a range of
variables. They are: (1) They are not part of the predestined elect (Calvinism);
(2) They are part of the evolutionary misfits and are hurting the genetic
pool (Spencer); (3) They are lazy or have no entrepreneurial spirit (Colonialism);
(4) Their institutions are corrupt and inefficient institutions thereby causing
underdevelopment (Developmentalism); (5) They are feudal (Marxism); and,
(6) They have not adequately embraced free market capitalism or adopted proper
fiscal and monetary policies (Development economics a la IMF/World Bank).
Underdevelopment as a direct cause of development (the stealing of gold, the
destruction of manufacturing abilities, the selling of raw material) is rarely
considered. The global system is not seen as a structured world economic system
with a global division of labor with few places at the top and many at the
bottom, rather the world economy is considered open to all with those at the
bottom only having themselves to blame.
In contrast, Gandhian-like localized systems are strong on survival and identity,
medium on well being but weak on freedom. These systems emphasize community,
dignity and relationships with the land, with tradition. Appropriate technology
is preferred (unfortunately the means to make this technology were often imported
thus the many problems with appropriate technology).
However, the links between small and large scale are not necessarily made--the
question of economies of scale and complexity still confound "small is
beautiful" type economic systems. Sarkar attempts to provide these links
through a three-tiered economic system: cooperative to provide basic needs,
small scale individual enterprises to provide entrepreneurial dynamism and
key industries run by local or regional government.
As important as an economic model is an accompanying political model. For
Sarkar
this means rethinking sovereignty, locating it primarily in Consciousness and
secondly in a world polity not in the nation-state. Sarkar's ideal political
system would not reduce mobility, indeed he encourages individual mobility
(travel) and the mobility of money, not letting it sit inefficiently. While
basic needs are the starting point of the PROUTist economy, as important as
physical needs are freedom and spiritual identity needs--with family and the
Other--these cannot be sacrificed. What is needed is not the elimination of
one to gain the other but, balance. The Communist systems eliminated freedom
needs so as to gain basic needs. The new man communism hoped to create was
utterly divorced from history and tradition: family and spirit were denied
in the quest for the new individual living for the collective, for the Party,
for the State. The communist project was also made more difficult by the global
capitalist system, that is, the open world system and its expansionary tendencies.
When it came down to it, many were ready to sacrifice survival and well being
for identity and cultural needs (which communism also suppressed, subjugating
them to State definitions of culture). Thus the many attempted escapes even
at the risk of imprisonment, torture and death, from every communist nation
to capitalist nations.
But in Sarkar's model, the present gap between center and periphery disappears
in five crucial areas: culture, economy, polity, environment and military.
What results is a balanced economy, polity and culture.
GROWTH
But with inequity reduced and exploitation eliminated, does PROUT have the
capacity to provide a growth-oriented economic system? If we analyze cosmologies
or worldviews along cultures of growth, we discover that there are five key
variables that explain growth: hard work, savings, greed, inconsiderateness
to others, and strong ideology. PROUT is strong on the first, medium on the
second, weak on the third and fourth, and strong on the fifth. Hard work
or struggle is essential in PROUT theory as it is effort that leads to individual
growth. Savings are accumulated since individual gratification is postponed.
Moreover, PROUT is long-term oriented in its economic policies, more concerned
with saving the earth for our grandchildren then spending for the present.
However, savings are less important in a PROUT based economy since PROUT
is needs-based not profit- based. PROUT is obviously weak on greed; since
for Sarkar the motivation for work should be service to humanity, not the
enlargement of the individual ego. PROUT is weak on inconsiderateness to
others (that is, in the creation of a periphery) since PROUT is essentially
a spiritual ideology committed to neo-humanistic ethics. PROUT itself is
a strong ideology providing an overall framework of economic, social and
spiritual meaning.
What of distribution? We posit that there are four variables that explain
the culture of distribution: equity, growth, view of others, view of nature.
A
system strong on distribution would have to be strong on equity (everyone gets
their share) strong on growth (so that there is something to distribute) strong
on "view of others" (others should be seen as fellow travellers not
as inferior so that there is no exploitation) and strong on "view of nature" (nature
and humans should be considered symbiotic so that development is sustainable,
thus allowing for long term balanced distribution). Sarkar theory is strong
on the first, medium on the second, strong on the third, and strong on the
fourth (although less so than the deep ecologists, for Sarkar still postulates
a hierarchy of Being). We would then expect a PROUTist world to be strong at
distribution and medium at growth. It should be able to compete economically
with the West and East-Asia but in fact be far superior because of its ability
to provide equitable distribution and care for the planet itself. In the long
run, Sarkar has argued PROUT would be high on (accelerated) growth as well
once the entire world system becomes PROUTist in its orientation.
Sarkar's PROUT then is an eclectic theory of economics drawing from many traditions
by including various principles such as limits to the accumulation of wealth,
incentive structures, decentralized planning, economic democracy, individual,
cooperative and state economic structures, and a multifarious understanding--physical,
mental and spiritual--of our potentials. PROUT resolves the contradictions
that have made communism nearly extinct, capitalism horribly exploitive and
Localism limited in scope.
ONTOLOGY AND EPISTEMOLOGY: THE DIVERSITY ISSUE
To further contextualize PROUT, along with the economic issues we need to analyze
two philosophical issues: ontological and epistemological diversity. How
does PROUT deal with the problem of philosophical diversity as compared to
other systems? In general historically there have been four accepted ways
of knowing. The first two claimed by the West as its exclusive property and
the second two ascribed to the East by the West (following Edward Said's
Orientalism). These ways of knowing are: Sense-Inference (Science), Reason-Logic
(Philosophy), Authority (Religion), Intuition (Mysticism).
Sarkar surprisingly uses all four epistemological perspectives but adds a fifth
that of devotion/love which is not merely an emotion but a way of constituting
the real. Love cannot describe what is real but insofar as language is opaque
(participating in what it refers to) it creates an alternative reality inaccessible
by other conventional ways of knowing. Moreover, Sarkar redefines science expanding
it beyond its present boundaries by including spiritual theories of the real.
These, while not easily discernible to the materialistic scientist, are realizable
by the spiritual-oriented scientist. But Sarkar does not negate reason and
sense-inference, he merely places it in a larger context of intuition and layers
of reality.
Following classical Indian thought, Sarkar approaches the problem of philosophical
diversity by arguing that truth (here moving from epistemology--how we know
what we know--to ontology, the nature of being) having many levels, as with
Spengler, deep and shallow. But this position, similar to Spengler's, is not
dualistic or Vedantic; rather consciousness is unitary and the material world
is merely changing, not less real or imaginary. Indeed, one of the criteria
of a good society is well being and economic vitality, not solely a society
where the transcendental is worshipped. Thus, Sarkar is eclectic, appropriating
many traditions. This is also the strength of the Japanese appropriating, for
example, Shinto, Buddhist, Confucian and Western traditions.
In contrast to Sarkar's approach, the Western view has been that truth is singular
and exclusive, there is only one right way to do it. It has been expansionist,
linear in logic, with strong divisions between the center and periphery (human/nature,
Occident/Orient, male/female, young/old). There is democracy but only within
sovereign nations not at the planetary level. There is cultural diversity but
only in the context of the universal attribution of Western civilization, so
much so, that civilization now means, ipso facto, Western civilization. Historically
the real has been seen either as ideational (the Medieval position) or material
(the modern position). The classical Indian has been equally uni-dimensional
arguing that only God is Real (thus denying the material dimensions). Less
radical positions have merely stated that the material world is not imaginary
merely misperception. The worldview denies social reality and is thus ultimately
exploitive since it places the burden of transformation in the hands of only
the individual, forgetting how class, gender and history structure our world.
Power is made invisible in this view of the real.
While Spengler argued that knowledge is deep and shallow not true and false,
Comte argued that knowledge has evolved from theological knowledge (primitive)
to metaphysical knowledge (philosophy and speculation) finally culminating
in positive science (objective material knowledge). While Comte's theory acknowledges
that there is more than one knowledge frame, prior states are distinctly inferior
to the present.
Sorokin takes a more gracious view and examines five responses to the question
of what is real. They are: (1) Only matter is real; (2) Only mind is real;
(3) Both are real; (4) It does not matter; and, (5) Reality is unknowable.
From the first answer we get sensate civilization, from the second we get ideational
civilization, from the third we get a balanced civilization. From the fourth,
no social structure is possible, since no culture can grow based on scepticism.
No dominant reality can be communicated. And the fifth again gives us no guidance
since reality is unknowable.
In this view the real is a component of material and spiritual dimensions,
economic and cultural factors. History follows a pendulum like pattern. The
first civilization develops to its peak, exaggerates and then, because it denies
the reality of the other types, declines. The next civilization then begins.
For Sarkar, reality at the philosophical level has many dimensions. The universe
is real but it is changing, consisting of many layers, from materialistic to
spiritual. We see the world that we are able to see. At the social level it
consists of four collective psychologies or ways of constituting the real--worker,
warrior, intellectual and merchant. The worker view is materialistic, the warrior
is materialistic concerned with conquering the material world, the intellectual
view is ideational and the merchant view is materialistic. Since the worker
world is never dominant, we can see how Sarkar is similar to Sorokin, for from
the warrior-materialistic view comes the intellectual-ideational view, followed
again by the merchant-materialistic view.
The worker view challenges the inequities
of the merchant worldview leading again to the intellectual ideational world.
The historical cycle continues until ethical leadership can create conditions
for both an ideational and material approach to reality.
SOCIAL THEORY
Continuing this discussion of models of social theory, we will now comment
on general models of social theory. We will specifically analyze linear,
cyclical, and transcendental theories of social history and time, asking:
where do we locate Sarkar in the world of macrotheories of change?
Sarkar has a multiple theory of time (linear, cyclical, and transcendental)
that includes superagency (the role of the divine, at least at symbolic levels),
the role of structure (collective psychology) and the role of the individual
(human agency).
Linear theories generally privilege a certain class over others. For Spencer,
it was the fittest who would survive, for Comte it was the moderns who would
vanquish the backward. The present is seen as objective and the past as ideological.
We submit our present to ourselves as if it was outside a metaphysic. Those
outside of the advanced modern world are treated as the raw materials for the
modern, either as labor or as the primitive, the exotic representing what the
modern has denied to itself. Linear theories are important in that they have
an idea of progress and a vision to move forward to. They often have a vision
of a possible future, realizable in this world. Linear theories are isomorphic
to theories of efficiency and quantitative time. Time is not relative but objective.
There is no going back, only the future exists.
Cyclical theories such as those of Spengler and Khaldun explain decline well.
They place history in a rise and fall model, in the life cycle model men and
women, and help us better understand change. They also remind us that the powerful
will fall and the meek will rise, that life is temporary and fleeting. Cyclical
theories often use metaphors from biology and are often thinly disguised critiques
of the present. For Toynbee and others the present was the degeneration of
humankind--the empire had overextended, the money spirit (a la Spengler) dominated
humans. Cyclical theories are then more radical than linear theories. However,
in these theories there is no exit since humanity is forever doomed to repeat
the past because of reasons internal to the model--dialectics, hubris, or overexpansion,
for example. Cyclical theorists while speaking to traditional cultures do not
offer a vision of expansion, of conquest and of struggle. They lead to acceptance
since nothing can be changed anyway. This is the vision of Kali Yuga, there
is nothing do to but meditate, so accept the world and wait.
Transcendental theories attempt to take us to a new discourse, to grander visions
of the cosmos, to what is really important; neither the nature of man (linear)
nor the nature of Nature (cyclical) but the nature of God (transcendental).
Time in this view is often divorced from efficiency and from nature, rather
the self is placed in a timeless position. Theories, however, that are solely
transcendental do not explain exploitation and structure. Thus, the role of
power is missing. Moreover, the causes of change are rarely developed. Rather
the will of the transcendental is considered the first and last cause. Often
they collapse into a simplistic cyclical theory wherein humans wait for God,
a God that came to humanity long ago. Prayer instead of social struggle are
outcomes of this position.
Sarkar is unique in that his theory has linear, cyclical and transcendental
dimensions. In the linear dimension of Sarkar's theory, historical change results
from humanity's struggle against the environment, struggle between ideas, and
because of the Attraction of the Great. He also has a cyclical dimension, that
is, his stage theory. What emerges from his stage theory is an understanding
of power (worker, military, normative, and remunerative power) and exploitation
(economic, cultural and spiritual). Thus, he is not passive, for while accepting
that history does have a structure he gives a way out of this history. Through
spiritual, social and economic struggle, through the creation of a new type
of leadership, through human agency, a new future is possible. Central to social
transformation is individual transformation, that is, entrance into timeless
time through meditation and spiritual effort.
Finally Sarkar has superagency, in terms of the classical Indian theory of
the Godhead, entering the human sphere when humanity is in desperation. For
Sarkar the metaphorical dimensions of this theory are as important as its empirical
basis, for this gives people hope even as they attempt to change and transform
the world around them. Sarkar then is unique in that he gives us a spiral--past
and future at the same time--theory of change. Marx tried to do this but the
spiral was only for the advanced capitalist nations not for the poor exploited
nations. Moreover, for Marx and liberal modernists the goal was the perfect
society, a society without contradictions. In this search for perfection, traditional
society, the periphery, the third world could be brutalized for this perfect
State. Sarkar, in contrast, wishes for a eutopia, a good place. For him, history
does not end, the stages will continue, the cycle is eternal. His goal is to
reduce exploitation and create a society that is conducive for spiritual pursuits.
Perfection is possible for individuals (through individual enlightenment) but
not for society as a whole, thus there is no necessity for an ever enlarging
State to create this perfect world.
THE PROBLEM OF LANGUAGE AND LOCATION
Recent developments in social and economic theory have placed language as gateway
to understanding politics, that is our description of the real in itself
constitutes the real. Earlier, socialists developed a sociology of knowledge,
showing that knowledge has a class basis. Non-Western cultures have shown
that English privileges a particular view of the world, that is, language
has a national and cultural bias as well. More recently, Feminists have shown
that language and knowledge has a gender basis as well. Language then is
no longer thought to merely describe the world in a neutral manner rather
it constitutes the world. Language is opaque. Indeed the study of politics
is about the study of language, of how the real is constituted in discourse.
Sarkar, aware of how language constituted the real, would consciously switched
what language he spoke depending on the type of presentation he gave--spiritual,
social, inspirational, academic, or organizational. He has also argued that
language gives us an idea of the complexity and focus of a particular culture,
that certain words could never be adequately translated since they represented
a different vision of reality--sanskrit words referring to the complexity of
spiritual reality, for example. Certain words thus could not be translated
since there are no appropriate frames of reference for them to be understood
in. These linguistic moves were not incidental but part of his effort to speak
to many constructions of reality.
But what of language and the spiritual itself? Is the real outside of language,
of discourse, or is the real merely discursive, situationally relative? For
Sarkar, the mystical dimension is beyond language: "It cannot be expressed
in language," he has uttered. Sarkar's response to the spiritual experience
then is that the "guru becomes dumb and the disciple becomes deaf." That
is, both know that any utterances will place that which is beyond discourse--the
experience of ineffable--in discourse, thus placing it in the context of culture,
history and politics.
And yet we must speak so as to communicate. While Habermas would have us search
for the ideal communicative situation--towards mutual understanding, since
communication between equals leads to freedom and dignity--the poststructural
perspective argues that knowledge claims are not true or false or even as deep
and shallow but as political assets. A theory is important if it gives us new
relationships, if it changes how we see and constitute the world, if it gives
new technologies to previously disabled cultures and peoples. While communism
is dead, Marx was important because he linked politics with economics, attempted
to place the objective within a theory of politics and power. While Freud overly
privileged the body, he was important because he showed how civilization created
the modern self as well as illuminated the contradictions between our basic
nature and our civilizational nature. He expanded our models of the self. Wallerstein
is also important in that he reminds us that even though we cannot know what
is true, since ideology has a subjective basis, it is ideology that gives us
the strength to march onwards.
The present is difficult and the future is far
away. It is a vision of truth that gives us the strength to delay gratification
in hope of a better world for all. It is this vision that help us survive the
periods of oppression, of disapproval from state structures, and from the dominance
of the present. So while many may hope for a world without social movements,
without ideology, of an objective modern world with only a linear theory of
development, it is the possibility that we can create another society, a good
society, that gives us impetus. This is where we would locate Sarkar. Attempts
to merely find empirical referents to his theory (to prove his theory by correspondence
to the natural world), while important, misunderstand the nature of his discourse.
They remain oblivious to the politics of knowledge. Sarkar's task is not theory
building (as in conventional philosophy or social science) or even economic
development (even though he has developed a model of an alternative political-economy)
but a new discourse, a new way of constituting the social, the political, the
personal, and the spiritual. A new ground plan. A new frame. A new world.
This is why attempts to locate Sarkar--to situate Sarkar in a variety of economic,
epistemological and social schemes--fail, for even as we attempt to fix Sarkar,
his own life strategies were to slip outside of conventional (and unconventional)
mapping strategies by creating new maps of what can be!